How Spectroscopy is Uncovering Ancient Egyptian History

Archaeology is the study of the ancient past, and it is a field that requires the careful handling of artifacts, many of which date back thousands of years. This is especially the case with Ancient Egypt, a period in history characterized by its pharaonic rule that maintained a level of stability that was foreign to many ancient civilizations. Ancient Egypt saw the development of construction techniques, the implementation of bureaucracy, several advancements in medicine and agriculture, and the creation of art, language, and mathematical systems. As a result, it is one of the most fascinating and important cultures to study.

Spectroscopy has played a role in this discovery of this ancient civilization. Because several spectroscopic techniques are nondestructive, spectroscopy allows for the detailed chemical and molecular analysis of artifacts without causing physical damage.^1,2 By employing various light-based analytical techniques, researchers are uncovering hidden details about how the Egyptians lived, traded, and preserved their dead.

In this Q&A overview, we explore how these scientific advancements are reshaping our understanding of Ancient Egyptian history and culture.

What makes spectroscopy such a vital tool for studying Ancient Egyptian artifacts?

As stated above, the primary advantage of using spectroscopic techniques is because of their non-destructive and non-invasive nature.¹ Some ancient Egyptian artifacts, such as papyrus scripts, are incredibly fragile. To preserve their integrity, spectroscopists and cultural scientists have to use specific instrument setups to avoid any damage during examination.¹ Portable spectroscopy has been useful for these analyses. Because spectrometers are becoming more miniaturized while still maintaining the level of functionality of traditional benchtop instruments, scientists are now able to conduct in situ analyses directly at excavation sites or within museums.^1,2 This eliminates the risk of transporting delicate artifacts to distant laboratories and provides archaeologists with rapid data to inform their next steps during a dig.^1,2

How is spectroscopy specifically used to analyze papyrus and ancient inks?

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) have been most useful for these analyses. These techniques have allowed researchers to decode the composition of papyrus.¹

These techniques have also been used to determine the elemental composition of pigments and additives.¹ Because XRF cannot characterize carbon, which is the primary component of "lamp black" ink, Raman spectroscopy is employed to examine black inks.¹ Meanwhile, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy is crucial for identifying organic binders in the ink and determining if specific ingredients were used to prepare the papyrus surface for writing.¹

Can you share a specific discovery made through these papyrus analyses?

One striking example involved a section of the Book of the Dead from the 3rd century BC. Researchers observed a golden decoration and initially assumed it was made of real gold.¹ However, spectroscopic analysis revealed an absence of gold; the "golden" regions were actually composed of orpiment, a compound of arsenic and sulfur.¹

In another study, spectroscopy identified high concentrations of calcium and the mineral calcite on several papyrus fragments.¹ This chemical signature allowed researchers to determine that the papyri had been recycled during the Roman Period to create "cartonnage" cases, which are protective, magically significant casings for mummified bodies.¹

What has spectroscopy revealed about the pottery excavated at archaeological sites?

Besides papyrus, spectroscopy has been used to analyze artwork and tools found at some of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt. For example, at the famous Saqqara necropolis, portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyze pottery from the Third Dynasty.³ Scientists identified the presence of minerals like albite, quartz, and hematite, which provided evidence that the pottery was fired at temperatures exceeding 800 °C.³ Additionally, polarized microscopy identified plagioclase feldspar in the clay, indicating that the raw material likely originated from the Nile region.³ By understanding the chemical degradation of these vessels, such as the presence of black deposits and chloride salts, conservators can develop better strategies to protect them for future generations.³

How does laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) aid in the study of mummification?

LIBS has been used to study the mummification process because of its ability to conduct rapid analysis. It also requires no sample preparation, which is important when studying ancient burial practices.² At the Ptahemwia tomb near Djoser's Step Pyramid, LIBS was used to analyze black resin remains and gold fragments used in the mummification process during the prosperous 19th Dynasty.²

Beyond individual objects, how does spectroscopy help reconstruct broader historical contexts like trade?

The analysis of silicate gems, such as peridot, emerald, amazonite, and amethyst, found in ancient mines provides "molecular fingerprints" that can indicate a stone's origin.⁴ By comparing these fingerprints to samples from other regions (such as peridot from Saudi Arabia), researchers can potentially reconstruct ancient trade routes.⁴

FT-IR is particularly useful here. The reason why FT-IR spectroscopy is useful here is because it can unveil the specific functional groups responsible for the vibrant colors of these gemstones and help distinguish natural stones from synthetic ones.⁴ This allows historians to better understand what materials ancient societies valued and how they moved those goods across the Mediterranean and beyond.⁴

What are the current challenges and the future of this field?

Although spectroscopic instrumentation and technology is advancing, several important challenges remain. For one, there is a lack of standardized papyrus samples for calibration, and the size of some instrument stages is still inadequate for large, intact papyrus sheets.¹ Furthermore, there is a push to make these expensive instruments more affordable. Researchers hope that as prices decrease, universities and museums in middle- and low-income countries will gain better access to the tools needed to study their own cultural heritage.¹

References

1. Hroncich, C. Non-Invasive Methods for Studying Papyrus from Ancient Egypt. Spectroscopy. Available at: https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/non-invasive-methods-for-studying-papyrus-from-ancient-egypt (accessed 2026-03-06).
2. Wetzel, W. Using LIBS for Archaeological Analysis at Saqqara. Spectroscopy. Available at: https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/using-libs-for-archaeological-analysis-at-saqqara (accessed 2026-03-06).
3. Spectroscopy Staff. PXRF Analysis Reveals Unique Deterioration in Ancient Pottery. Spectroscopy. Available at: https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/pxrf-analysis-reveals-unique-deterioration-in-ancient-pottery (accessed 2026-03-06).
4. Spectroscopy Staff. Using Spectroscopy to Characterize Gems in Ancient Egyptian Mines. Spectroscopy. Available at: https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/using-spectroscopy-to-characterize-gems-in-ancient-egyptian-mines (accessed 2026-03-06).